During the past 40 years, a new model has emerged and revolutionized earth sciences like perhaps no other before. The theory of Plate Tectonics is now well-established and forms the basis of our current understanding of the structure and dynamics of our earth. In particular, plate tectonics explains geologic features on the crust over a wide scale, such as the distribution of land and sea, the formation of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanism. Tectonic plates are composed of the rigid outer portion of the earth, called lithosphere. With a thickness of about 100 km, the lithosphere is composed of an upper layer of crust (~7 km thick under the oceans, and ~50 km thick under the continents) and a lower, denser layer of the earth's upper mantle. The rest of the mantle underlying the plates is sufficiently hot to be mobile, although by far the largest part of it is solid. Despite the high temperature, the effect of pressure inside the mantle usually prevents melting. The rigid lithosphere plates are driven by convection within the mobile asthenosphere. Hot mantle rises beneath mid-oceanic ridges, and cold, denser mantle descends at oceanic trenches. Lateral motion of the lithosphere plates above these circular convection cells is analogous to rigid blocks riding above a rotating conveyor belt. Subduction zones, or convergent margins, are one of the three types of plate boundaries. The others are divergent and transform margins. At a divergent margin, two plates are spreading apart, as at seafloor-spreading ridges or continental rift zones such as the East Africa Rift. Transform margins mark slip-sliding plates, such as California's San Andreas Fault, where the North America and Pacific plates grind past each other with a mostly horizontal motion. The driving force behind plate tectonics is convection in the mantle. Hot material near the earth's core rises, and colder mantle rock sinks. The convection drive plates tectonics through a combination of pushing and spreading apart at mid-ocean ridges and pulling and sinking downward at subduction zones. Scientists continue to study and debate the mechanisms that move the plates. From the deepest ocean trench to the tallest mountain, plate tectonics explains the features and movement of Earth's surface in the present and the past.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Judith Rosales

Delve Publishing

Fuzzy logic is an approach to computing based on "degrees of truth" rather than the usual "true or false" (1 or 0) Boolean logic on which the modern computer is based. The idea of fuzzy logic was first advanced by Dr. Lotfi Zadeh of the University of California at Berkeley in the 1960s. Dr. Zadeh was working on the problem of computer understanding of natural language. Natural language (like most other activities in life and indeed the universe) is not easily translated into the absolute terms of 0 and 1. (Whether everything is ultimately describable in binary terms is a philosophical question worth pursuing, but in practice much data we might want to feed a computer is in some state in between and so, frequently, are the results of computing.) It may help to see fuzzy logic as the way reasoning really works and binary or Boolean logic is simply a special case of it. Fuzzy logic starts with and builds on a set of user-supplied human language rules. The fuzzy systems convert these rules to their mathematical equivalents. This simplifies the job of the system designer and the computer, and results in much more accurate representations of the way systems behave in the real world. Additional benefits of fuzzy logic include its simplicity and its flexibility. Fuzzy logic can handle problems with imprecise and incomplete data, and it can model nonlinear functions of arbitrary complexity. You can create a fuzzy system to match any set of input-output data. The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox makes this particularly easy by supplying adaptive techniques such as adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) and fuzzy subtractive clustering. Fuzzy logic models, called fuzzy inference systems, consist of a number of conditional "if-then" rules. For the designer who understands the system, these rules are easy to write, and as many rules as necessary can be supplied to describe the system adequately (although typically only a moderate number of rules are needed). In fuzzy logic, unlike standard conditional logic, the truth of any statement is a matter of degree. (How cold is it? How high should we set the heat?) We are familiar with inference rules of the form p -> q (p implies q). With fuzzy logic, it's possible to say (.5* p ) -> (.5 * q). For example, for the rule if (weather is cold) then (heat is on), both variables, cold and on, map to ranges of values. Fuzzy inference systems rely on membership functions to explain to the computer how to calculate the correct value between 0 and 1. The most tangible applications of fuzzy logic control have appeared commercial appliances. Specifically, but not limited to heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. These systems use fuzzy logic thermostats to control the heating and cooling, this saves energy by making the system more efficient.

Fuzzy logic: Theory and Applications

Science & Math

Unknown, Author

Mathematics

Control Theory Fundamentals

Electrical Engineering : Concepts and Applications [Hardcover] [Jan 01, 2017] Rongie N. Bolanos

Electronics means study of flow of electrons in electrical circuits. The word Electronics comes from electron mechanics which means learning the way how an electron behaves under different conditions of externally applied fields. Fundamentals of electronics are the core subject in all branches of engineering nowadays. It deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, associated passive. Electronics has made tremendous advancement during last few decades and our day to day life involves the use of electronic devices. Availability of economical and fast means of communication paves the way for progress of a country. Few decades ago, the main application of electronics was in the field of telephony and telegraphy. Now, with the aid of radio waves we can transmit any message from one place to another, without the use of wires. Radio and TV broadcasting offers a means of both entertainment as well as communication. Today, Electronics gadgets are widely used for entertainment. Defense applications are completely controlled by electronic circuits. RADAR that is Radio Detection and Ranging is the most important development in electronics field. With the help of radar it is possible to detect and find the exact location of enemy aircraft. Radar and anti-craft guns can be linked by an automatic control system to make a complete unit. Electronics circuits are widely being used in industrial applications such as control of thickness, quality, weight and moisture content of a material. Electronic amplifier circuits are used to amplify signals and thus control the operations of automatic door openers, power systems and safety devices. Electronically controlled systems are used for heating and welding in the industry. Electronics systems are being used by Doctors and scientists in the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. X-rays, ECG, Short eave diathermy units and oscillographs are some instruments which have been used so far in medical science. The use of electronics in medical science has grown so extremely and is useful in saving the life of mankind from a lot of sufferings. Electronics engineering is an electrical engineering discipline which utilizes non-linear and active electrical components to design electronic circuits, devices, microprocessors, microcontrollers and other systems. The discipline typically also designs passive electrical components, usually based on printed circuit boards. This text introduces reader to the basics of electronic engineering.

Electronics Engineering [Hardcover] [Jan 01, 2017] Rongie N. Bolanos

Hydrology deals with the origin, occurrence, circulation, distribution, the physical and chemical properties of water and its interaction with living organisms. Hydrology is an essential field of science since everything from tiny organisms to individuals to societies to the whole of civilization - depends so much on water. Hydrological engineering, also called water resources engineering, is a civil engineering specialty offered at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Hydrological engineering is chiefly concerned with the flow and storage of water. Topics commonly covered include urban drainage, water supply, wastewater treatment, river management and coastal protection. Hydrological engineering also focuses on preventing floods and lessening the effects of floods, droughts and other natural disasters. Water is an essential resource that is required by all life on Earth. Studying the movement, availability, and quality of water are the jobs of a hydrologist. More specifically hydrologists study the chemical properties, biological interactions, and the physical processes that govern the water cycle. The water cycle or hydrologic cycle is a process by which water is continuously cycled around the earth. This happens through different pathways and at different rates but the central concepts remain the same. Water evaporates from the ocean, condenses as clouds, moves over land, and precipitates. From there it can enter ground water, evaporate again, or enter a stream or lake. It will eventually find its way back to the ocean either by falling as precipitation, flowing with a river, or by moving ever so slowly with ground water. The hydrologic cycle is also a process that transfers heat energy. Heat is transported pole ward by water being evaporated and then condensing which releases heat. Without the water cycle the climate would be much more frigid and areas away from the equator would be much less habitable. Hydrology is more significant these days because we plan ahead of time to deal with extremes (scarcity of water leading to droughts, and overflowing of water bodies leading to floods). This text introduces students to the key concepts and methods in physical and engineering hydrology.

Engineering Hydrology [Hardcover] [Jan 01, 2017] June Blyth Orillana Royol

Oceanography is the branch of science which deals with the physical and biological properties of the ocean and the various phenomena related to it. It covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. Oceanography studies the naturally happening, large-scale drifts on the Earth, the mobility of fluids in the ocean known as geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics or the movements of the large sections that form the ocean floor and the processes of land formation or geology of the sea bed. The ocean experiences numerous variabilities of various chemical substances present in its water-body. The physical properties within the ocean and beyond its boundaries also affect the ocean. These changes are the subject matter of oceanography. Oceanography is an amalgamation of diverse topics and oceanographers reflect multiple disciplines like biology, chemistry, geology and physics that interrelate to expand knowledge of the world oceans and the processes within. The areas which Oceanography brings under its focus is the deep sea and the shallow coastal regions. The oceans of the world are not isolated from the rest of the physical features of the world. They are influenced by and influence the atmosphere, the continents and the frozen water part of the Earth system called the cryosphere. Together they form a harmonious whole, absorbing the sun's rays for energy. It also receives energy from tides caused by the pull of the moon, the sun and planets. The Earth's interior also radiates heat. Oceanography is inclusive of the disciplines that analyze the workings of marine life, ecosystems and ocean circulation. Oceanography is a very important discipline for understanding the oceans, which are essential for all life on Earth and cover the majority of the Earth's surface.

Principles of Oceanography

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology. It is a study that dates back to ancient times, when ancient civilizations made observations and kept records of weather conditions, both for agricultural purposes and out of a general curiosity about the world around them. Over the centuries, the atmosphere has been studied for a variety of reasons, including agricultural knowledge, military defense and planning, and developing better warnings for severe weather systems like tornadoes and hurricanes. Technological advances, such as the development of scientific computing and an increase in the total number of meteorological observations being taken daily across the globe, have allowed for better forecasts (or at least the meteorological community likes to think they are better forecasts) and a much better overall understanding of our atmosphere. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water vapor, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of those variables, and how they change over time. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels. There are many specialized branches, or subfields, of meteorology, each defined by both the spatial scale of the phenomena they study and by the other branches of science they involve. In terms of spatial scale, all meteorological study is conducted on either the micro-, meso-, synoptic, or global scale. Microscale meteorology deals with any problems that are on the order of 1 kilometer in size or smaller, things like individual clouds or heat transfers. Mesoscale meterology includes phenomena in the size range from the upper end of the microscale to several hundred kilometers. Lake effect snowstorms, severe thunderstorms, and mesoscale convective complexes.

Fundamentals of Meteorology

Management of Natural Hazards and Disasters

The study of animal behavior begins with understanding how an animal's physiology and anatomy are integrated with its behavior. Both external and internal stimuli prompt behaviors - external information (e.g., threats from other animals, sounds, smells) or weather and internal information (e.g., hunger, fear). The study of behavior helps us to understand when and why animals, including humans, act. At one extreme, behavior is the link between the nervous system and the world outside an animal. At the other extreme, behavior is the way in which an animal establishes and maintains itself in its ecological niche. Behavior is a key link between an animal and its environment. Animals behavior includes communication, navigation, foraging, mating, parenting, and social cooperation. Each of these topics is a major subject within the study of behavior, and we will deal with each in a separate chapter. These issues all involve action and interaction; they are the externally expressed component of animal behavior. Behavior has internal underpinnings, as well. Motivation, learning, cognition and emotion shape an animal's behavioral decisions and therefore are critical in the study of behavior. Each of these topics has a neurobiological basis, so that their study links externally expressed behavior with the internal state of an animal. Scientists are drawn to the study of animal behavior for varied reasons and the field is extremely broad, ranging from research on feeding behavior and habitat selection to mating behavior and social organizations. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. Research on non-human primates, for instance, continues to offer valuable perspectives into the causes and evolution of individual, social, and reproductive human actions. Understanding why some animals help others at the potential cost of their own survival and reproduction, for example, not only gives us insight into their behavior but could also potentially help us to understand the underpinnings of our species' ideas of altruism and sacrifice.

Animal Behavior: An Introduction [Hardcover] [Jan 01, 2017] Katyayani Tatiparti

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